| 360° evaluation A performance appraisal method that involves evaluation by supervisors, subordinates, peers, along with a self-evaluation. |
| abnormal Term used to describe behavior that is rare or dysfunctional, causes personal distress, or deviates from social norms. |
| absolute threshold The smallest amount of energy needed for a person to consciously detect a stimulus 50% percent of the time it is present. Minimum amount of energy required for conscious detection of a stimulus 50% of the time by participants. The least amount of energy that can be detected as a stimulation 50 percent of the time. |
| accommodation As a monocular clue, the brain's use of information about the changing thickness of the lens of the eye in response to looking at objects that are close or far away. Alteration of existing schemas to understand new information; in focusing, action of the ciliary muscles to change the shape of the lens. |
| acculturative stress Stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to the majority culture. The stress of adapting to a new culture. |
| achievement Manipulation of the environment according to established rules to attain a desired goal. |
| achievement motive The need to excel, to overcome obstacles. |
| acquired (secondary) drives Those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval. |
| acronyms A word formed by the initial letter(s) of the items to be remembered. |
| acrophobia Fear of heights. |
| acrostic A verse or saying in which the first letter(s) of each word stands for a bit of information. |
| action potential The release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon. Reversal in electrical charge of a neuron that occurs when the neuron fires. |
| action therapy Therapy in which the main goal is to change disordered or inappropriate behavior directly. |
| activation-information-mode model (AIM) Revised version of the activation-synthesis explanation of dreams in which information that is accessed during waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams. |
| activation-synthesis hypothesis Explanation that states that dreams are created by the higher centers of the cortex to explain the activation by the brain stem of cortical cells during REM sleep periods. Explanation of dreams that suggests that they result when the cortex seeks to explain the high level of neuronal activity occurring during REM sleep. |
| activity theory Theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby. |
| actualizing tendency According to Rogers, the drive of every organism to fulfill its biological potential and become what it is inherently capable of becoming. |
| adaptation An adjustment of the senses to the level of stimulation they are receiving. Loss of sensitivity to a stimulus by the receptors as a result of continued presentation of that stimulus. |
| adaptive theory Theory of sleep proposing that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active. |
| additive color mixing The process of mixing lights of different wavelengths to create new hues. |
| adjustment Any effort to cope with stress. |
| adolescence The period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult. The years between approximately age 12 and age 20. |
| adoption studies Research carried out on children, adopted at birth by parents not genetically related to them, to determine the relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior. |
| adrenal glands Endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence. Pair of glands located at the top of each of the kidneys; they release a range of hormones including epinephrine and norepinephrine. |
| adrenogenital syndrome Condition caused by exposure to excessive amounts of androgens during the fetal period; can result in a female with genitals resembling those of males. |
| adulthood, early Period from approximately age 20 to age 40. |
| adulthood, late Period from approximately age 65 until death. |
| adulthood, middle Period from approximately age 40 to age 65. |
| aerial perspective The haziness that surrounds objects that are farther away from the viewer, causing the distance to be perceived as greater. Monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that more distant objects are likely to appear hazy and blurred. |
| affect In psychology, an emotional reaction. |
| afferent neurons Neurons that carry messages from sense organs to the spinal cord or brain. Afferent (sensory) nerves.Nerves that carry information from the receptors to the spinal cord and brain. |
| affiliation motive The need to be with others. |
| afterimages Images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed. Sensory experience that occurs after a visual stimulus has been removed. |
| ageism The tendency to view the elderly in a negative. |
| aggression Actions meant to harm or destroy. Behavior aimed at doing harm to others; also, the motive to behave aggressively. Behavior intended to do harm to others; also, the motive to behave aggressively. Behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person. Physical or psychological behavior that is performed with the intent of doing harm. |
| agonists Chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell. Drug that enhances the effects of a particular neurotransmitter. |
| agoraphobia Fear of being in a place or situation from which escape is difficult or impossible. An anxiety disorder that involves multiple, intense fears of crowds, public places, and other situations that require separation from a source of security such as the home. Avoidance of public places or situations in which escape may be difficult should the individual develop incapacitating or embarrassing symptoms of panic. |
| agreeableness The emotional style of a person that may range from easygoing, friendly, and likeable to grumpy, crabby, and unpleasant. |
| AIDS or acquired immune deficiency syndrome Sexually transmitted viral disorder that causes deterioration of the immune system and eventually results in death due to complicating infections that the body can no longer fight. Viral disease transmitted via bodily fluids such as blood and semen, usually during sexual relations or by sharing needles used by a person infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); the virus attacks the body's immune system, resulting in vulnerability to infections and diseases, which eventually cause death. |
| alcohol The chemical resulting from fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter. Depressant that is the intoxicating ingredient in whiskey, beer, wine, and other fermented or distilled liquors. |
| alcoholism/alcohol abuse Depressant psychoactive substance, also known as ethyl alcohol or ethanol. |
| algorithm A systematic procedure that is guaranteed to furnish the correct answer to a problem if it is followed correctly because the procedure involves all possible solutions. |
| algorithms Very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. Systematic procedures that are guaranteed to furnish the correct answer to problems if they are followed correctly because the procedures involve all possible solutions. |
| all-or-none Referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all. Principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; either the neuron fires at full strength, or it does not fire at all. All-or-None Law. |
| all-or-nothing thinking The tendency to believe that one's performance must be perfect or the result will be a total failure. |
| alpha waves Brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep. |
| altered state of consciousness State in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness. Mental states that differ noticeably from normal waking consciousness. |
| altruism Prosocial behavior that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself. Helping behavior performed voluntarily with no anticipation of reward. |
| altruistic behavior Helping behavior that is not linked to personal gain. |
| Alzheimer's disease A neurological disorder, most commonly found in late adulthood, characterized by progressive losses in memory and cognition and by changes in personality. Degenerative brain disorder that results in progressive loss of intelligence and awareness. |
| amnesia Loss of memory that occurs as a result of physical or psychological trauma. |
| amniocentesis Withdrawal and analysis of amniotic fluid to detect genetic abnormalities in the fetus. |
| amphetamines Stimulants that are synthesized (made) in laboratories rather than being found in nature; initially produce "rushes" of euphoria often followed by sudden "crashes" and, sometimes, severe depression. Stimulants that are used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy. |
| amygdala Brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear. The magnitude of a wave; in sound, the primary determinant of loudness. Strength or intensity of a stimulus (brightness for visual stimuli; loudness for auditory stimuli. |
| anal expulsive personality A person fixated in the anal stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile. |
| anal retentive personality A person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn. |
| anal stage Second stage occurring from about1 to 3 years of age, in which the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of conflict. Second stage of psychosexual development, during which the focus of pleasure is the anus and conflict often occurs as efforts are made to toilet-train the child. |
| analytical intelligence The ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving. |
| androgen insensitivity syndrome Failure by a male embryo to respond to male hormones |
| androgens Male sex hormones. |
| androgyny Characteristic of possessing the most positive personality characteristics of males and females regardless of actual sex. |
| andropause Gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males. |
| anorexia nervosa A condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal body weight or more occurs. A serious eating disorder that is associated with an intense fear of weight gain and a distorted body image. Potentially life-threatening eating disorder occurring primarily in adolescent and young adult females; an intense fear of becoming fat leads to self-starvation and weight loss accompanied by a strong belief that one is fat despite objective evidence to the contrary. |
| anoxia Reduction or lack of oxygen. |
| antagonists Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters. Drugs that oppose or inhibit the effects of a particular neurotransmitter. |
| anterograde amnesia Loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories. Inability to store new memories after a traumatic event. |
| antianxiety drugs Drugs used to treat and calm anxiety reactions, typically minor tranquilizers. Minor tranquilizers, such as benzodiazepines, used to reduce anxiety, usually by increasing the ability of the neurotransmitter GABA to bind at synapses. |
| antidepressant drugs Drugs used to treat depression and anxiety. |
| antigens Foreign substances such as bacteria that trigger an immune response. |
| antipsychotic drugs Drugs used to treat psychotic symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and other bizarre behavior. Drugs used to treat very severe psychological disorders, particularly schizophrenia. Drugs that reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain; the typical antipsychotic drugs work by blocking dopamine, whereas the atypical drugs (such as Clozapine) also block serotonin. |
| antisocial personality disorder Disorder in which a person has no morals or conscience and often behaves in an impulsive manner without regard for the consequences of that behavior. Personality disorder characterized by deceitful, impulsive, reckless actions for which the individual feels no remorse. Personality disorder that involves a pattern of violent, criminal, or unethical and exploitative behavior and an inability to feel affection for others. |
| anxiety disorders Disorders in which the main symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety and fearfulness. Disorders in which anxiety is a characteristic feature or the avoidance of anxiety seems to motivate abnormal behavior. |
| anxiety General feeling of apprehension characterized by behavioral, cognitive, or physiological symptoms. |
| aphasia General term for problems in understanding or producing spoken or written language. |
| apnea Sleep disorder characterized by breathing difficulty during the night and feelings of exhaustion during the day. |
| apparent motion Illusion of movement in a stationary object. |
| applied behavior analysis (ABA) Modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response. |
| applied psychology The use of psychological concepts in solving real-world problems. |
| approach–approach conflict Conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable goals. According to Lewin, the result of simultaneous attraction to two appealing possibilities, neither of which has any negative qualities. |
| approach–avoidance conflict Conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects. |
| apraxia Deficits in nonverbal skills. According to Lewin, the result of being simultaneously attracted to and repelled by the same goal. |
| arbitrary inference Distortion of thinking in which a person draws a conclusion that is not based on any evidence. Conclusion drawn in the absence of supporting information. |
| archetypes Jung's collective, universal human memories. In Jung's theory of personality, thought forms common to all human beings, stored in the collective unconscious. |
| arousal theory Theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation. Theory of motivation that proposes that organisms seek an optimal level of arousal. |
| artificial intelligence (AI) The creation of a machine that can think like a human. |
| assessment center Method used to select high-level managers that places applicants in a simulated and highly structured group setting where they are given personnel tests and extensive interviews and they engage in various role-playing activities. |
| assimilation Piaget's term for the process of incorporating information into existing schemas. |
| association areas Areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing. Areas of the cerebral cortex where incoming messages from the separate senses are combined into meaningful impressions and outgoing messages from the motor areas are integrated. |
| attachment The emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver. Emotional bond that develops in the first year of life that makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort. Intense reciprocal relationship formed by two people, usually a child and an adult. |
| attention The selection of some incoming information for further processing. |
| attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A childhood disorder characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity. |
| attitude A tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain person, object, idea, or situation. |
| attitudes Evaluative judgments about objects, people, and thoughts that include affective, knowledge, and behavioral components. |
| attraction The extent to which we like or dislike other people. |
| attribution The process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others. |
| attribution theory The theory of how people make attributions. |
| attributions The process of assigning causes to events and behaviors. |
| audition Sense of hearing. |
| auditory canal Short tunnel that runs from the pinna to the eardrum. |
| auditory learners People who learn best by hearing and saying things out loud. |
| auditory nerve Bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear. |
| authenticity The genuine, open, and honest response of the therapist to the client. |
| authoritarian personality A personality pattern characterized by rigid conventionality, exaggerated respect for authority, and hostility toward those who defy society's norms. |
| autistic disorder A childhood disorder characterized by lack of social instincts and strange motor behavior. |
| autobiographical memory The memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story. |
| autokinetic illusion The perception that a stationary object is actually moving. |
| automatic encoding Tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding. |
| autonomic nervous system (ANS) Division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands. |
| autonomous moral principles Kohlberg's third stage of moral development (age 13 or later, if at all), in which control over moral conduct is completely internalized. |
| autonomy Sense of independence; a desire not to be controlled by others. The feeling of being able to act independently and having personal control over one's actions. |
| autonomy versus shame and doubt Erikson's second psychosocial crisis (1.5 to 3 years), in which children develop a sense of whether their behavior is under their own control or under the control of external forces. |
| availability A heuristic by which a judgment or decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory. Heuristic in which the probability of an event is determined by how readily it comes to mind. |
| aversion therapy Form of behavioral therapy in which an undesirable behavior is paired with an aversive stimulus to reduce the frequency of the behavior. Classical conditioning technique for reducing or eliminating behavior by pairing the behavior with an unpleasant stimulus. |
| aversive conditioning Behavioral therapy techniques aimed at eliminating undesirable behavior patterns by teaching the person to associate them with pain and discomfort. |
| avoidance training Learning a desirable behavior to prevent the occurrence of something unpleasant, such as punishment. |
| avoidance/avoidance conflict According to Lewin, the result of facing a choice between two undesirable possibilities, neither of which has any positive qualities. |
| avoidant personality disorder Personality disorder in which the person's fears of rejection by others lead to social isolation. |
| axon terminals Branches at the end of the axon. |
| axon Tube like structure that carries the neural message to other cells. Single long fiber extending from the cell body; it carries outgoing messages. Elongated part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles, and glands. |
