self-esteem
Individuals' degree of liking
or disliking of themselves.
self-monitoring
A personality trait that
measures an individual's
ability to adjust his or her
behavior to external,
situational factors.
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Self-Esteem
People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike them-
selves. This trait is called self-esteem.24 The research on self-esteem (SE) offers
some interesting insights into organizational behavior. For example, self-esteem
is directly related to expectations for success. High SEs believe that they possess
the ability they need in order to succeed at work.
Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job selection and
are more likely to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self-esteem.
The most generalizable finding on self-esteem is that low SEs are more sus-
ceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs depend on the receipt of
positive evaluations from others. As a result, they are more likely to seek approval
from others and more prone to conform to the beliefs and behaviors of those
they respect than are high SEs. In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be
concerned with pleasing others and, therefore, are less likely to take unpopular
stands than are high SEs.
Not surprisingly, self-esteem has also been found to be related to job satisfac-
tion. A number of studies confirm that high SEs are more satisfied with their jobs
than are low SEs.
Self-Monitoring
A personality trait that has recently received increased atten-
tion is called self-monitoring.25
It refers to an individual's ability to adjust his
or her behavior to external, situational factors.
Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability in ad-
justing their behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive
to external cues and can behave differently in different situations. High self-
monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public
persona and their private self. Low self-monitors can't disguise themselves in
that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every sit-
uation; hence, there is high behavioral consistency between who they are and
what they do.
The research on self-monitoring is in its infancy, so predictions must be
guarded. However, preliminary evidence suggests that high self-monitors tend to
pay closer attention to the behavior of others and are more capable of conforming
than are low self-monitors.26
In addition, high self-monitoring managers tend to
be more mobile in their careers and receive more promotions (both internal and
cross-organizational).27
We might also hypothesize that high self-monitors will be
more successful in managerial positions in which individuals are required to play
multiple, and even contradicting, roles. The high self-monitor is capable of
putting on different "faces" for different audiences.
Risk Taking
Donald Trump stands out for his willingness to take risks. He
started with almost nothing in the 1960s. By the mid-1980s, he had made a for-
tune by betting on a resurgent New York City real estate market. Then, trying to
capitalize on his previous successes, Trump overextended himself. By 1994, he
had a negative
net worth of $850 million. Never fearful of taking chances, "The
Donald" leveraged the few assets he had left on several New York, New Jersey,
and Caribbean real estate ventures. He hit it big again. By 1999, Forbes estimated
his net worth at over $2 billion.
People differ in their willingness to take chances. This propensity to assume
or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to
make a decision and how much information they require before making their
choice. For instance, 79 managers worked on simulated personnel exercises that
required them to make hiring decisions.28
High risk-taking managers made more
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